Юридические переводы дистанционно через Интернет

Перевести с: английского. На: русский. Объём перевода: 1.5 страниц. Разовая задача или временный проект. 1.2.3 From the 1648 Peace Treaty of Westphalia to the 1815 Congress of Vienna The period from the 1648 Peace Treaty of Westphalia to the 1815 Congress of Vienna is considered as the period of formation of “classical” international law. Indeed, international law in its modern version begins with the breakup of the feudal State-system and the formation of society into free nation States. This is commonly traced back to the period leading up to the 1648 Peace Treaty of Westphalia which ended the Thirty Years’ War in Europe. The Treaty of Westphalia, which is often referred to as the constitutional treaty of Europe, recognised the principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity and equality of States. Under the Treaty, European rulers established a system of balance of power aimed at preventing wars. This system lasted until the French Revolution in 1789 and the Napoleonic Wars of 1799– 1815 and was then readopted by the 1815 Congress of Vienna to establish a new balance of power in Europe following those wars. The concept of sovereignty was at the centre of the international system. It justified the authority of kings over their subjects and placed the supreme power within the State. But since all States are equally sovereign, it also conveyed the idea of independence. The claim of a State to be sovereign does not mean that the power of the State is subject to no limitations. The obvious limitation is territorial: any State is finite and necessarily has boundaries outside which its writ does not run, and other, sovereign States exist. As a result, States had to develop rules governing their relationships with each other. These rules became a source of CIL. Intellectual support for new ideas was provided by scholars, in particular the Anglo-Dutch School represented by Hugo Grotius and Alberto Gentilli. Alberto Gentilli, an Italian Protestant who fled to England to avoid persecution, was the first to separate international law from theology and ethics. Grotius, who is considered as the founder of the modern theory of natural law, acknowledged Gentilli’s contribution to his work, but further divorced international law from theology by exploring the hypothetical argument that natural law would have validity even if there were no God, or if God was not interested in human affairs. Grotius treated law as deductive, and independent of experience. In respect of international law, in his work Mare Liberum (The Free Sea (1609)), he advocated the freedom of the seas. He argued that it would be against natural law to rule over the sea as no country was able to monopolise control over the ocean because of its immensity, lack of stability and lack of fixed limits (see Chapter 8.1.1). His principal work, De Jure Belli ac Pacis (On the Law of War and Peace (1625)), constituted the first systematic treatment of positive international law. Grotius considered war as violating natural law but accepted its necessity, and supported the idea of a “just war” which according to him was a war to obtain a right. He regarded religious war as unjust because religion was a matter of inner conviction, which could not be forced on anyone. He also posited that war should be regulated and placed emphasis on moral conduct during wars. Accordingly, non- combatants should be protected, hostages and prisoners treated with humanity, and property protected from wanton destruction. The topics of neutrality, treaties and diplomatic practice were examined in his works. He also discussed methods for peaceful settlement of international disputes, and recognised sovereign States as the basic units of international law. The law of nations is viewed by Grotius as universally accepted, and he emphasised that a civil right which derives from the laws of a sovereign State is inferior to a right based on the law of nations because “the law of nations is more extensive rights, deriving its authority from the consent of all, or at least of many nations.” Despite Grotius’ adherence to the law of nature, he also recognisedjus gentiumorjus voluntarium comprising customary rules for the conduct of States. The last mentioned did not stem from the law of nature; they were apart. His emphasis on this voluntary law, which is essentially positivist, came to be as influential as his belief in natural law. Grotius’ works were very popular with his contemporaries, and appealed to subsequent generations. His law of nature was further developed by the German jurist Samuel von Pufendorf and the 17th-century English philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. In the 19th century, the principle of utility – according to which the object of all legislation must be the “greatest happiness of the greatest number” – developed by Jeremy Bentham, and legal positivism (according to which law is based simply on “the command of the ruler”) formulated by John Austin, rejected the doctrine of natural law as unprovable. However, after WWII the idea that there are some higher standards than positive law revived the interest in natural law. At the end of the 18th century there were two events of great importance to the development of international law. The first was the achievement of independence by the British colonies in North America, which after seven years of war against the British and relying on the principle of self-determination, were recognised as a new subject of international law even by Great Britain (the 1782 Treaty of Paris; see Chapter 13.3). The second was the French Revolution, which embraced ideas valid for humanity as a whole. In both the US and France, constitutions guaranteed citizens’ fundamental rights, and imposed on the State duties with regard to its citizensещё

Перевести с: русского. На: английский. Объём перевода: 1 знак. Разовая задача или временный проектещё

Перевести с: английского. На: русский. Объём перевода: 1.5 страниц. Разовая задача или временный проект. 1.2.3 From the 1648 Peace Treaty of Westphalia to the 1815 Congress of Vienna The period from the 1648 Peace Treaty of Westphalia to the 1815 Congress of Vienna is considered as the period of formation of “classical” international law. Indeed, international law in its modern version begins with the breakup of the feudal State-system and the formation of society into free nation States. This is commonly traced back to the period leading up to the 1648 Peace Treaty of Westphalia which ended the Thirty Years’ War in Europe. The Treaty of Westphalia, which is often referred to as the constitutional treaty of Europe, recognised the principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity and equality of States. Under the Treaty, European rulers established a system of balance of power aimed at preventing wars. This system lasted until the French Revolution in 1789 and the Napoleonic Wars of 1799– 1815 and was then readopted by the 1815 Congress of Vienna to establish a new balance of power in Europe following those wars. The concept of sovereignty was at the centre of the international system. It justified the authority of kings over their subjects and placed the supreme power within the State. But since all States are equally sovereign, it also conveyed the idea of independence. The claim of a State to be sovereign does not mean that the power of the State is subject to no limitations. The obvious limitation is territorial: any State is finite and necessarily has boundaries outside which its writ does not run, and other, sovereign States exist. As a result, States had to develop rules governing their relationships with each other. These rules became a source of CIL. Intellectual support for new ideas was provided by scholars, in particular the Anglo-Dutch School represented by Hugo Grotius and Alberto Gentilli. Alberto Gentilli, an Italian Protestant who fled to England to avoid persecution, was the first to separate international law from theology and ethics. Grotius, who is considered as the founder of the modern theory of natural law, acknowledged Gentilli’s contribution to his work, but further divorced international law from theology by exploring the hypothetical argument that natural law would have validity even if there were no God, or if God was not interested in human affairs. Grotius treated law as deductive, and independent of experience. In respect of international law, in his work Mare Liberum (The Free Sea (1609)), he advocated the freedom of the seas. He argued that it would be against natural law to rule over the sea as no country was able to monopolise control over the ocean because of its immensity, lack of stability and lack of fixed limits (see Chapter 8.1.1). His principal work, De Jure Belli ac Pacis (On the Law of War and Peace (1625)), constituted the first systematic treatment of positive international law. Grotius considered war as violating natural law but accepted its necessity, and supported the idea of a “just war” which according to him was a war to obtain a right. He regarded religious war as unjust because religion was a matter of inner conviction, which could not be forced on anyone. He also posited that war should be regulated and placed emphasis on moral conduct during wars. Accordingly, non- combatants should be protected, hostages and prisoners treated with humanity, and property protected from wanton destruction. The topics of neutrality, treaties and diplomatic practice were examined in his works. He also discussed methods for peaceful settlement of international disputes, and recognised sovereign States as the basic units of international law. The law of nations is viewed by Grotius as universally accepted, and he emphasised that a civil right which derives from the laws of a sovereign State is inferior to a right based on the law of nations because “the law of nations is more extensive rights, deriving its authority from the consent of all, or at least of many nations.” Despite Grotius’ adherence to the law of nature, he also recognisedjus gentiumorjus voluntarium comprising customary rules for the conduct of States. The last mentioned did not stem from the law of nature; they were apart. His emphasis on this voluntary law, which is essentially positivist, came to be as influential as his belief in natural law. Grotius’ works were very popular with his contemporaries, and appealed to subsequent generations. His law of nature was further developed by the German jurist Samuel von Pufendorf and the 17th-century English philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. In the 19th century, the principle of utility – according to which the object of all legislation must be the “greatest happiness of the greatest number” – developed by Jeremy Bentham, and legal positivism (according to which law is based simply on “the command of the ruler”) formulated by John Austin, rejected the doctrine of natural law as unprovable. However, after WWII the idea that there are some higher standards than positive law revived the interest in natural law. At the end of the 18th century there were two events of great importance to the development of international law. The first was the achievement of independence by the British colonies in North America, which after seven years of war against the British and relying on the principle of self-determination, were recognised as a new subject of international law even by Great Britain (the 1782 Treaty of Paris; see Chapter 13.3). The second was the French Revolution, which embraced ideas valid for humanity as a whole. In both the US and France, constitutions guaranteed citizens’ fundamental rights, and imposed on the State duties with regard to its citizensещё

Перевести с: русского. На: английский. Объём перевода: 1 знак. Разовая задача или временный проектещё

Перевести с: английского. На: русский. Объём перевода: 3 страницы. Разовая задача или временный проект. Первое задание письменно переводим, от начала до конца Второе задание: поставьте вопросы к тексту Общий вопрос (2-3 штуки) Один два вопроса к подлежащему Остальные вопросы специальные (когда, что, почему) Третье задание : составьте план по тексту (тезисно или в виде вопроса) Четвертое задание : краткое содержание текста, на английском языке. перевод профессионального текста письменноещё

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Перевести с: русского. На: английский. Объём перевода: 1800 знаков. Разовая задача или временный проект. Завтра нужно получить уже готовый документещё

Перевести с: русского. На: английский. Объём перевода: 5000 знаков. Разовая задача или временный проект. Есть NDA на двух языках, в русскую внесены изменения, нужно их отразить в англоязычной. Объем перевода около 5000 знаков с пробелами. И нужно провести сверку всего документа на соответствие языков. Объем документа на русском языке около 14000 знаковещё

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Перевести с: английского. На: русский. Объём перевода: 1.5 страниц. Разовая задача или временный проект. 1.2.3 From the 1648 Peace Treaty of Westphalia to the 1815 Congress of Vienna The period from the 1648 Peace Treaty of Westphalia to the 1815 Congress of Vienna is considered as the period of formation of “classical” international law. Indeed, international law in its modern version begins with the breakup of the feudal State-system and the formation of society into free nation States. This is commonly traced back to the period leading up to the 1648 Peace Treaty of Westphalia which ended the Thirty Years’ War in Europe. The Treaty of Westphalia, which is often referred to as the constitutional treaty of Europe, recognised the principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity and equality of States. Under the Treaty, European rulers established a system of balance of power aimed at preventing wars. This system lasted until the French Revolution in 1789 and the Napoleonic Wars of 1799– 1815 and was then readopted by the 1815 Congress of Vienna to establish a new balance of power in Europe following those wars. The concept of sovereignty was at the centre of the international system. It justified the authority of kings over their subjects and placed the supreme power within the State. But since all States are equally sovereign, it also conveyed the idea of independence. The claim of a State to be sovereign does not mean that the power of the State is subject to no limitations. The obvious limitation is territorial: any State is finite and necessarily has boundaries outside which its writ does not run, and other, sovereign States exist. As a result, States had to develop rules governing their relationships with each other. These rules became a source of CIL. Intellectual support for new ideas was provided by scholars, in particular the Anglo-Dutch School represented by Hugo Grotius and Alberto Gentilli. Alberto Gentilli, an Italian Protestant who fled to England to avoid persecution, was the first to separate international law from theology and ethics. Grotius, who is considered as the founder of the modern theory of natural law, acknowledged Gentilli’s contribution to his work, but further divorced international law from theology by exploring the hypothetical argument that natural law would have validity even if there were no God, or if God was not interested in human affairs. Grotius treated law as deductive, and independent of experience. In respect of international law, in his work Mare Liberum (The Free Sea (1609)), he advocated the freedom of the seas. He argued that it would be against natural law to rule over the sea as no country was able to monopolise control over the ocean because of its immensity, lack of stability and lack of fixed limits (see Chapter 8.1.1). His principal work, De Jure Belli ac Pacis (On the Law of War and Peace (1625)), constituted the first systematic treatment of positive international law. Grotius considered war as violating natural law but accepted its necessity, and supported the idea of a “just war” which according to him was a war to obtain a right. He regarded religious war as unjust because religion was a matter of inner conviction, which could not be forced on anyone. He also posited that war should be regulated and placed emphasis on moral conduct during wars. Accordingly, non- combatants should be protected, hostages and prisoners treated with humanity, and property protected from wanton destruction. The topics of neutrality, treaties and diplomatic practice were examined in his works. He also discussed methods for peaceful settlement of international disputes, and recognised sovereign States as the basic units of international law. The law of nations is viewed by Grotius as universally accepted, and he emphasised that a civil right which derives from the laws of a sovereign State is inferior to a right based on the law of nations because “the law of nations is more extensive rights, deriving its authority from the consent of all, or at least of many nations.” Despite Grotius’ adherence to the law of nature, he also recognisedjus gentiumorjus voluntarium comprising customary rules for the conduct of States. The last mentioned did not stem from the law of nature; they were apart. His emphasis on this voluntary law, which is essentially positivist, came to be as influential as his belief in natural law. Grotius’ works were very popular with his contemporaries, and appealed to subsequent generations. His law of nature was further developed by the German jurist Samuel von Pufendorf and the 17th-century English philosophers Thomas Hobbes and John Locke. In the 19th century, the principle of utility – according to which the object of all legislation must be the “greatest happiness of the greatest number” – developed by Jeremy Bentham, and legal positivism (according to which law is based simply on “the command of the ruler”) formulated by John Austin, rejected the doctrine of natural law as unprovable. However, after WWII the idea that there are some higher standards than positive law revived the interest in natural law. At the end of the 18th century there were two events of great importance to the development of international law. The first was the achievement of independence by the British colonies in North America, which after seven years of war against the British and relying on the principle of self-determination, were recognised as a new subject of international law even by Great Britain (the 1782 Treaty of Paris; see Chapter 13.3). The second was the French Revolution, which embraced ideas valid for humanity as a whole. In both the US and France, constitutions guaranteed citizens’ fundamental rights, and imposed on the State duties with regard to its citizensещё

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